SPRINGER HANDBOOK OF LASERS AND OPTICS
Frank Trager (Ed.)
With CD-ROM, 978. Figures and 136. Tables
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Forward 6
Preface 9
*List of Abbreviations ................................................................................. 24
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Part A Basic Principles and Materials
1 The Properties of Light
Richard Haglund ..................................................................................... 3
1.1 Introduction and Historical Sketch ......... 4
1.1.1 From the Greeks and Romans
to Johannes Kepler....................... 4
1.1.2 From Descartes to Newton............. 4
1.1.3 Newton and Huygens ................... 5
1.1.4 The 19th Century:
The Triumph of the Wave Picture.... 5
1.2 Parameterization of Light ..................... 6
1.2.1 Spectral Regions
and Their Classification ................. 6
1.2.2 Radiometric Units......................... 7
1.2.3 Photometric Units ........................ 7
1.2.4 Photon and Spectral Units ............. 8
1.3 Physical Models of Light ........................ 9
1.3.1 The Electromagnetic Wave Picture .. 9
1.3.2 The Semiclassical Picture:
Light Quanta................................ 12
1.3.3 Light as a Quantum Field .............. 13
1.4 Thermal and Nonthermal Light Sources .. 14
1.4.1 Thermal Light .............................. 15
1.4.2 Luminescence Light ...................... 16
1.4.3 Light from Synchrotron Radiation... 17
1.5 Physical Properties of Light ................... 17
1.5.1 Intensity ..................................... 17
1.5.2 Velocity of Propagation ................. 18
1.5.3 Polarization................................. 18
1.5.4 Energy and Power Transport .......... 20
1.5.5 Momentum Transport: The Poynting
Theorem and Light Pressure .......... 21
1.5.6 Spectral Line Shape ...................... 21
1.5.7 Optical Coherence ........................ 23
1.6 Statistical Properties of Light................. 24
1.6.1 Probability Density
as a Function of Intensity.............. 24
1.6.2 Statistical Correlation Functions ..... 25
1.6.3 Number Distribution Functions
of Light Sources ........................... 26
1.7 Characteristics and Applications
of Nonclassical Light ............................. 27
1.7.1 Bunched Light ............................. 27
1.7.2 Squeezed Light ............................ 27
1.7.3 Entangled Light ........................... 28
1.8 Summary ............................................. 29
References .................................................. 29
2 Geometrical Optics
Norbert Lindlein, Gerd Leuchs................................................................... 33
2.1 The Basics and Limitations
of Geometrical Optics ............................ 34
2.1.1 The Eikonal Equation .................... 34
2.1.2 The Orthogonality Condition
of Geometrical Optics.................... 35
2.1.3 The Ray Equation ......................... 35
2.1.4 Limitations of the Eikonal Equation 36
2.1.5 Energy Conservation
in Geometrical Optics.................... 38
2.1.6 Law of Refraction ......................... 38
2.1.7 Law of Reflection ......................... 39
2.2 Paraxial Geometrical Optics ................... 39
2.2.1 Paraxial Rays
in Homogeneous Materials ............ 39
2.2.2 Refraction in the Paraxial Case....... 42
2.2.3 The Cardinal Points
of an Optical System ..................... 44
2.2.4 The Imaging Equations
of Geometrical Optics.................... 49
2.2.5 The Thin Lens............................... 51
2.2.6 The Thick Lens ............................. 52
2.2.7 Reflecting Optical Surfaces............. 55
2.2.8 Extension of the Paraxial Matrix
Theory to 3?3 Matrices ................. 56
2.3 Stops and Pupils................................... 60
2.3.1 The Aperture Stop......................... 60
2.3.2 The Field Stop .............................. 61
2.4 Ray Tracing .......................................... 61
2.4.1 Principle ..................................... 61
2.4.2 Mathematical Description
of a Ray ...................................... 62
2.4.3 Determination of the Point
of Intersection with a Surface ........ 63
2.4.4 Calculation
of the Optical Path Length............. 65
2.4.5 Determination
of the Surface Normal ................... 65
2.4.6 Law of Refraction ......................... 65
2.4.7 Law of Reflection ......................... 66
2.4.8 Non-Sequential Ray Tracing
and Other Types of Ray Tracing ...... 67
2.5 Aberrations .......................................... 67
2.5.1 Calculation
of the Wave Aberrations................ 68
2.5.2 Ray Aberrations
and the Spot Diagram................... 68
2.5.3 The Seidel Terms
and the Zernike Polynomials ......... 69
2.5.4 Chromatic Aberrations .................. 71
2.6 Some Important Optical Instruments ...... 72
2.6.1 The Achromatic Lens ..................... 72
2.6.2 The Camera ................................. 74
2.6.3 The Human Eye ............................ 77
2.6.4 The Telescope .............................. 78
2.6.5 The Microscope ............................ 82
References .................................................. 84
3 Wave Optics
Norbert Lindlein, Gerd Leuchs................................................................... 87
3.1 Maxwell’s Equations
and the Wave Equation......................... 88
3.1.1 The Maxwell Equations ................. 88
3.1.2 The Complex Representation
of Time-Harmonic Waves .............. 94
3.1.3 Material Equations ....................... 95
3.1.4 The Wave Equations ..................... 98
3.1.5 The Helmholtz Equations............... 99
3.2 Polarization ......................................... 102
3.2.1 Different States of Polarization ...... 105
3.2.2 The Poincare Sphere ..................... 105
3.2.3 Complex Representation
of a Polarized Wave...................... 106
3.2.4 Simple Polarizing Optical Elements
and the Jones Calculus.................. 106
3.3 Interference ......................................... 108
3.3.1 Interference of Two Plane Waves.... 108
3.3.2 Interference Effects for Plane Waves
with Different Polarization States ... 111
3.3.3 Interference of Arbitrary
Scalar Waves................................ 115
3.3.4 Some Basic Ideas of Interferometry 119
3.4 Diffraction ........................................... 123
3.4.1 The Angular Spectrum
of Plane Waves ............................ 123
3.4.2 The Equivalence of the
Rayleigh–Sommerfeld Diffraction
Formula and the Angular Spectrum
of Plane Waves ............................ 125
3.4.3 The Fresnel and the Fraunhofer
Diffraction Integral ....................... 126
3.4.4 Numerical Implementation of the
Different Diffraction Methods......... 135
3.4.5 The Influence of Polarization Effects
to the Intensity Distribution
Near the Focus ............................. 138
3.5 Gaussian Beams ................................... 143
3.5.1 Derivation of the Basic Equations... 143
3.5.2 The Fresnel Diffraction Integral and
the Paraxial Helmholtz Equation.... 145
3.5.3 Propagation of a Gaussian Beam.... 146
3.5.4 Higher-Order Modes
of Gaussian Beams ....................... 147
3.5.5 Transformation of a Fundamental
Gaussian Beam at a Lens .............. 151
3.5.6 ABCD Matrix Law
for Gaussian Beams...................... 152
3.5.7 Some Examples of the Propagation
of Gaussian Beams ....................... 153
References .................................................. 154
4 Nonlinear Optics
Aleksei Zheltikov, Anne L’Huillier, Ferenc Krausz ........................................ 157
4.1 Nonlinear Polarization
and Nonlinear Susceptibilities ............... 159
4.2 Wave Aspects of Nonlinear Optics ........... 160
4.3 Second-Order Nonlinear Processes ......... 161
4.3.1 Second-Harmonic Generation........ 161
4.3.2 Sum- and Difference-Frequency
Generation and Parametric
Amplification............................... 163
4.4 Third-Order Nonlinear Processes ............ 164
4.4.1 Self-Phase Modulation ................. 165
4.4.2 Temporal Solitons......................... 166
4.4.3 Cross-Phase Modulation ............... 167
4.4.4 Self-Focusing............................... 167
4.4.5 Four-Wave Mixing........................ 169
4.4.6 Optical Phase Conjugation ............. 169
4.4.7 Optical Bistability and Switching .... 170
4.4.8 Stimulated Raman Scattering......... 172
4.4.9 Third-Harmonic Generation
by Ultrashort Laser Pulses.............. 173
4.5 Ultrashort Light Pulses
in a Resonant Two-Level Medium:
Self-Induced Transparency
and the Pulse Area Theorem.................. 178
4.5.1 Interaction of Light
with Two-Level Media .................. 178
4.5.2 The Maxwell and Schrodinger
Equations for a Two-Level Medium 178
4.5.3 Pulse Area Theorem ...................... 180
4.5.4 Amplification
of Ultrashort Light Pulses
in a Two-Level Medium ................ 181
4.5.5 Few-Cycle Light Pulses
in a Two-Level Medium ................ 183
4.6 Let There be White Light:
Supercontinuum Generation.................. 185
4.6.1 Self-Phase Modulation,
Four-Wave Mixing,
and Modulation Instabilities
in Supercontinuum-Generating
Photonic-Crystal Fibers ................. 185
4.6.2 Cross-Phase-Modulation-Induced
Instabilities ................................. 187
4.6.3 Solitonic Phenomena in Media
with Retarded Optical Nonlinearity. 189
4.7 Nonlinear Raman Spectroscopy .............. 193
4.7.1 The Basic Principles ...................... 194
4.7.2 Methods of Nonlinear Raman
Spectroscopy ............................... 196
4.7.3 Polarization Nonlinear Raman
Techniques.................................. 199
4.7.4 Time-Resolved Coherent
Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering........ 201
4.8 Waveguide Coherent Anti-Stokes
Raman Scattering ................................. 202
4.8.1 Enhancement of Waveguide CARS
in Hollow Photonic-Crystal Fibers... 202
4.8.2 Four-Wave Mixing and CARS
in Hollow-Core Photonic-Crystal
Fibers ......................................... 205
4.9 Nonlinear Spectroscopy
with Photonic-Crystal-Fiber Sources....... 209
4.9.1 Wavelength-Tunable Sources and
Progress in Nonlinear Spectroscopy 209
4.9.2 Photonic-Crystal Fiber Frequency
Shifters ....................................... 210
4.9.3 Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman
Scattering Spectroscopy
with PCF Sources .......................... 211
4.9.4 Pump-Probe Nonlinear
Absorption Spectroscopy
using Chirped Frequency-Shifted
Light Pulses
from a Photonic-Crystal Fiber ........ 213
4.10 Surface Nonlinear Optics, Spectroscopy,
and Imaging ........................................ 216
4.11 High-Order Harmonic Generation .......... 219
4.11.1 Historical Background................... 219
4.11.2 High-Order-Harmonic Generation
in Gases ...................................... 220
4.11.3 Microscopic Physics ...................... 222
4.11.4 Macroscopic Physics...................... 225
4.12 Attosecond Pulses:
Measurement and Application ............... 227
4.12.1 Attosecond Pulse Trains
and Single Attosecond Pulses......... 227
4.12.2 Basic Concepts
for XUV Pulse Measurement ........... 227
4.12.3 The Optical-Field-Driven XUV Streak
Camera Technique........................ 230
4.12.4 Applications of Sub-femtosecond
XUV Pulses: Time-Resolved
Spectroscopy of Atomic Processes ... 234
4.12.5 Some Recent Developments........... 236
References .................................................. 236
5 Optical Materials and Their Properties
Matthias Brinkmann, Joseph Hayden, Martin Letz, Steffen Reichel,
Carol Click, Wolfgang Mannstadt, Bianca Schreder, Silke Wolff,
Simone Ritter, Mark J. Davis, Thomas E. Bauer, Hongwen Ren,
Yun-Hsing Fan, Shin-Tson Wu, Klaus Bonrad, Eckhard Kratzig,
Karsten Buse, Roger A. Paquin ................................................................. 249
5.1 Interaction of Light
with Optical Materials ........................... 250
5.1.1 Dielectric Function ....................... 250
5.1.2 Linear Refraction.......................... 255
5.1.3 Absorption .................................. 258
5.1.4 Optical Anisotropy ........................ 261
5.1.5 Nonlinear Optical Behavior
and Optical Poling ........................ 265
5.1.6 Emission ..................................... 269
5.1.7 Volume Scattering ........................ 271
5.1.8 Surface Scattering ........................ 275
5.1.9 Other Effects ................................ 278
5.2 Optical Glass ........................................ 282
5.2.1 Chronological Development ........... 282
5.2.2 Compositions
of Modern Optical Glass ................ 283
5.2.3 Environmentally Friendly Glasses ... 287
5.2.4 How to Choose Appropriate Optical
Glasses ....................................... 288
5.3 Colored Glasses .................................... 290
5.3.1 Basics ......................................... 290
5.3.2 Color in Glass............................... 292
5.4 Laser Glass ........................................... 293
5.4.1 Common Laser Glasses
and Properties ............................. 293
5.4.2 Laser Damage .............................. 297
5.4.3 Storage and Handling of Laser Glass 300
5.5 Glass–Ceramics for Optical Applications .. 300
5.5.1 Overview..................................... 300
5.5.2 Properties of Glass–Ceramics ......... 301
5.5.3 Applications ................................ 306
5.6 Nonlinear Materials .............................. 307
5.6.1 Overview on Nonlinear Optical
Materials..................................... 307
5.6.2 Application:
All Optical Switching ..................... 312
5.6.3 Second Harmonic Generation
in Glass....................................... 313
5.6.4 Glass Systems Investigated
for Nonlinear Effects ..................... 313
5.6.5 NL-Effects in Doped Glasses........... 314
5.7 Plastic Optics........................................ 317
5.7.1 Moulding Materials ...................... 317
5.7.2 Manufacturing Methods ................ 319
5.7.3 Manufacturing Process .................. 320
5.7.4 Coating
and Component Assembly ............. 322
5.7.5 New Developments....................... 322
5.8 Crystalline Optical Materials................... 323
5.8.1 Halides, CaF2 ............................... 323
5.8.2 Semiconductors ........................... 325
5.8.3 Sapphire ..................................... 325
5.8.4 Optic Anisotropy
in Cubic Crystals ........................... 326
5.9 Special Optical Materials........................ 327
5.9.1 Tunable Liquid Crystal Electronic
Lens ........................................... 327
5.9.2 OLEDs.......................................... 333
5.9.3 Photorefractive Crystals ................. 339
5.9.4 Metal Mirrors ............................... 346
5.10 Selected Data ....................................... 354
References .................................................. 360
6 Thin Film Optical Coatings
Detlev Ristau, Henrik Ehlers...................................................................... 373
6.1 Theory of Optical Coatings ..................... 374
6.2 Production of Optical Coatings ............... 378
6.2.1 Thermal Evaporation .................... 379
6.2.2 Ion Plating
and Ion-Assisted Deposition.......... 381
6.2.3 Sputtering ................................... 382
6.2.4 Ion-Beam Sputtering.................... 384
6.2.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) .... 384
6.2.6 Other Methods ............................. 386
6.2.7 Process Control
and Layer Thickness Determination 386
6.3 Quality Parameters
of Optical Coatings................................ 388
6.4 Summary and Outlook........................... 391
References .................................................. 393
Part B Fabrication and Properties of Optical Components
7 Optical Design and Stray Light Concepts and Principles
Mary G. Turner, Robert P. Breault ............................................................. 399
7.1 The Design Process ............................... 399
7.2 Design Parameters................................ 402
7.3 Stray Light Design Analysis .................... 410
7.4 The Basic Equation of Radiation Transfer 412
7.4.1 Stray Radiation Paths ................... 413
7.4.2 Start from the Detector ................. 413
7.4.3 The Reverse Ray Trace ................... 414
7.4.4 Field Stops and Lyot Stops ............. 415
7.5 Conclusion ........................................... 416
References .................................................. 416
8 Advanced Optical Components
Robert Brunner, Enrico Gei?ler, Bernhard Messerschmidt, Dietrich Martin,
Elisabeth Soergel, Kuon Inoue, Kazuo Ohtaka, Ajoy Ghatak,
K. Thyagarajan........................................................................................ 419
8.1 Diffractive Optical Elements................... 419
8.1.1 The Fresnel Zone Plate Lens ........... 420
8.1.2 Subwavelength Structured
Elements..................................... 427
8.2 Electro-Optic Modulators....................... 434
8.2.1 Phase Modulation ........................ 435
8.2.2 Polarization Modulation................ 436
8.2.3 Intensity Modulation .................... 436
8.3 Acoustooptic Modulator ........................ 438
8.3.1 Intensity Modulator...................... 439
8.3.2 Frequency Shifter ......................... 439
8.3.3 Deflector ..................................... 439
8.4 Gradient Index Optical Components ....... 440
8.4.1 Ray Tracing in Gradient Index
Media ......................................... 442
8.4.2 Fabrication Techniques ................. 442
8.4.3 Application.................................. 444
8.5 Variable Optical Components ................. 449
8.5.1 Variable Lenses ............................ 450
8.5.2 New Variable Optical Components .. 458
8.5.3 Outlook
on Variable Optical Components..... 458
8.6 Periodically Poled Nonlinear Optical
Components......................................... 459
8.6.1 Fundamentals ............................. 459
8.6.2 Fabrication of Periodically Poled
Structures.................................... 460
8.6.3 Visualization of Ferroelectric
Domain Structures ........................ 461
8.6.4 Applications ................................ 461
8.7 Photonic Crystals .................................. 463
8.7.1 Photonic Band Structures .............. 464
8.7.2 Unique Characteristics .................. 466
8.7.3 Applications ................................ 469
8.7.4 Summary .................................... 471
8.8 Optical Fibers ....................................... 471
8.8.1 Historical Remarks........................ 471
8.8.2 The Optical Fiber .......................... 472
8.8.3 Attenuation in Optical Fibers ......... 473
8.8.4 Modes of a Step-Index Fiber.......... 473
8.8.5 Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) ............... 476
8.8.6 Pulse Dispersion in Optical Fibers ... 477
8.8.7 Fiber Bragg Gratings ..................... 482
8.8.8 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers
(EDFAs)........................................ 483
8.8.9 Raman Fiber Amplifier (RFA) .......... 487
8.8.10Nonlinear Effects in Optical Fibers .. 489
8.8.11 Microstructured Fibers .................. 493
References .................................................. 494
9 Optical Detectors
Alexander Goushcha, Bernd Tabbert ......................................................... 503
9.1 Photodetector Types, Detection Regimes,
and General Figures of Merit ................. 505
9.1.1 Types of Photodetectors ................ 505
9.1.2 Sources of Noise........................... 505
9.1.3 Detection Regimes........................ 507
9.1.4 Figures of Merit............................ 508
9.2 Semiconductor Photoconductors ............ 510
9.2.1 Photoconductors – Figures of Merit 510
9.2.2 Photoconductors:
Materials and Examples ................ 511
9.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes .................. 512
9.3.1 Semiconductor Photodiode
Principles .................................... 512
9.3.2 Photodiodes – Figures of Merit ...... 515
9.3.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes –
Materials..................................... 521
9.4 QWIP Photodetectors............................. 527
9.4.1 Structure and Fabrication of QWIPs . 527
9.4.2 QWIPs –
Properties and Figures of Merit ...... 528
9.4.3 Applications of QWIPs ................... 529
9.5 QDIP Photodetectors ............................. 529
9.5.1 Structures and Fabrication of QDIPs 529
9.6 Metal–Semiconductor (Schottky Barrier)
and Metal–Semiconductor–Metal
Photodiodes ........................................ 530
9.6.1 Schottky Barrier Photodiode
Properties ................................... 530
9.6.2 Metal–Semiconductor–Metal (MSM)
Photodiode ................................. 532
9.7 Detectors with Intrinsic Amplification:
Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) ............... 532
9.7.1 APD: Principles, Basic Properties,
and Typical Structures ................... 532
9.7.2 APD: Main Characteristics and
Figures of Merit............................ 534
9.7.3 Materials Used to Fabricate APDs .... 536
9.8 Detectors with Intrinsic Amplification:
Phototransistors ................................... 537
9.8.1 Photosensitive Bipolar Transistor ... 537
9.8.2 Darlington Phototransistor
(Photo-Darlington)....................... 538
9.8.3 Field-Effect-Based Phototransistors 538
9.9 Charge Transfer Detectors...................... 539
9.9.1 MOS Capacitor .............................. 539
9.9.2 CCDs Employed as Charge-Coupled
Image Sensors (CCISs) .................... 543
9.9.3 Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (CMOS) Detectors ..... 545
9.10 Photoemissive Detectors ....................... 546
9.10.1 Photoemissive Cell ....................... 546
9.10.2 Photomultiplier ........................... 547
9.10.3 Single-Channel Electron Multipliers
and Microchannel Plates ............... 548
9.11 Thermal Detectors ................................ 549
9.11.1 Mechanical Displacement.............. 549
9.11.2 Voltage ....................................... 549
9.11.3 Capacitance ................................. 550
9.11.4 Electrical Resistance ..................... 551
9.12 Imaging Systems .................................. 553
9.12.1 CCD Arrays and CMOS Arrays............ 554
9.12.2 p–i–n Photodiode Arrays .............. 555
9.12.3 Vidicon ....................................... 555
9.13 Photography ........................................ 555
9.13.1 Black and White Photography........ 555
9.13.2 Color Photography........................ 556
9.13.3 Photography:
Properties and Figures of Merit ...... 558
References .................................................. 560
Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
10 Incoherent Light Sources
Dietrich Bertram, Matthias Born, Thomas Justel ........................................ 565
10.1 Incandescent Lamps ............................. 565
10.1.1 Normal Incandescent Lamps .......... 565
10.1.2 Tungsten Halogen Lamps .............. 566
10.2 Gas Discharge Lamps ............................ 566
10.2.1 General Aspects ........................... 566
10.2.2 Overview of Discharge Lamps......... 567
10.2.3 Low-Pressure Discharge Lamps ...... 567
10.2.4 High-Pressure Discharge Lamps ..... 570
10.3 Solid-State Light Sources....................... 574
10.3.1 Principle of Electroluminescence .... 574
10.3.2 Direct Versus Indirect
Electroluminescence ..................... 575
10.3.3 Inorganic Light-Emitting Diodes
(LEDs) ......................................... 575
10.3.4 Organic LEDs ................................ 578
10.4 General Light-Source Survey.................. 581
References .................................................. 581
11 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources
Orazio Svelto, Stefano Longhi, Giuseppe Della Valle, Stefan Kuck,
Gunter Huber, Markus Pollnau, Hartmut Hillmer, Stefan Hansmann,
Rainer Engelbrecht, Hans Brand, Jeffrey Kaiser, Alan B. Peterson,
Ralf Malz, Steffen Steinberg, Gerd Marowsky, Uwe Brinkmann, Dennis Lo†,
Annette Borsutzky, Helen Wachter, Markus W. Sigrist, Evgeny Saldin,
Evgeny Schneidmiller, Mikhail Yurkov, Katsumi Midorikawa,
Joachim Hein, Roland Sauerbrey, Jurgen Helmcke ..................................... 583
11.1 Principles of Lasers ............................... 584
11.1.1 General Principles ....................... 584
11.1.2 Interaction of Radiation
with Atoms................................. 590
11.1.3 Laser Resonators and Modes......... 595
11.1.4 Laser Rate Equations
and Continuous-Wave Operation .. 602
11.1.5 Pulsed Laser Behavior .................. 605
11.2 Solid-State Lasers ................................. 614
11.2.1 Basics ........................................ 614
11.2.2 UV and Visible Rare-Earth Ion
Lasers ........................................ 619
11.2.3 Near-Infrared Rare Earth Lasers .... 636
11.2.4 Mid-Infrared Lasers ..................... 660
11.2.5 Transition-Metal-Ion Lasers ......... 674
11.2.6 Overview of the most Important
Laser Ions in Solid-State Lasers ..... 694
11.3 Semiconductor Lasers............................ 695
11.3.1 Overview.................................... 695
11.3.2 Resonator Types
and Modern Active Layer Materials:
Quantum Effects and Strain .......... 698
11.3.3 Edge-Emitting Laser Diodes
with Horizontal Resonators .......... 703
11.3.4 Basics of Surface-Emitting Lasers
with Vertical Resonators (VCSELs) ... 720
11.3.5 Edge-Emitting Lasers and VCSELs
with Low-Dimensional Active
Regions...................................... 725
11.3.6 Lasers with External Resonators .... 725
11.4 The CO2 Laser........................................ 726
11.4.1 Physical Principles....................... 726
11.4.2 Typical Technical Designs.............. 737
11.5 Ion Lasers ............................................ 746
11.5.1 Ion-Laser Physics ........................ 747
11.5.2 Plasma Tube Design..................... 749
11.5.3 Ion-Laser Resonators................... 751
11.5.4 Electronics.................................. 753
11.5.5 Ion-Laser Applications ................. 755
11.6 The HeNe Laser..................................... 756
11.6.1 The Active Medium ...................... 756
11.6.2 Construction and Design Principles 758
11.6.3 Stabilization ............................... 762
11.6.4 Manufacturing ............................ 763
11.6.5 Applications ............................... 764
11.7 Ultraviolet Lasers:
Excimers, Fluorine (F2), Nitrogen (N2) ...... 764
11.7.1 The Unique Properties
of Excimer Laser Radiation ........... 765
11.7.2 Technology of Current Excimer Lasers
and the N2 Laser ......................... 765
11.7.3 Applications ............................... 770
11.7.4 Outlook: Radiation in the EUV ....... 775
11.8 Dye Lasers............................................ 777
11.8.1 Overview.................................... 777
11.8.2 General Description ..................... 777
11.8.3 Flashlamp-Pumped Dye Lasers ..... 777
11.8.4 Tunable Dye Lasers Pumped by
High-Power Short-Wavelength
Lasers ........................................ 778
11.8.5 Colliding-Pulse Mode-Locked
Dye Lasers .................................. 778
11.8.6 Tunable Continuous-Wave
Dye Lasers .................................. 779
11.8.7 Advanced Solid-State Dye Lasers ... 779
11.9 Optical Parametric Oscillators................. 785
11.9.1 Optical Parametric Generation ...... 786
11.9.2 Phase Matching .......................... 787
11.9.3 Optical Parametric Oscillators ........ 790
11.9.4 Design and Performance
of Optical Parametric Oscillators .... 790
11.10 Generation of Coherent Mid-Infrared Radiation
by Difference-Frequency Mixing . 801
11.10.1 Difference-Frequency Generation
(DFG) ......................................... 802
11.10.2 DFG Laser Sources ........................ 809
11.10.3 Outlook...................................... 813
11.11 Free-Electron Lasers ............................. 814
11.11.1 Principle of Operation.................. 814
11.11.2 Current Status and Perspective
Applications of Free-Electron
Lasers ........................................ 815
11.11.3 Suggested further reading............ 819
11.12 X-ray and EUV Sources........................... 819
11.12.1 X-Ray Lasers ............................... 819
11.12.2 High-Order Harmonics ................. 822
11.13 Generation of Ultrahigh Light Intensities
and Relativistic Laser–Matter Interaction 827
11.13.1 Laser Systems for the Generation
of Ultrahigh Intensities ................ 827
11.13.2 Relativistic Optics
and Laser Particle Acceleration...... 834
11.14 Frequency Stabilization of Lasers ........... 841
11.14.1 Characterization
of Noise, Stability, Line Width,
Reproducibility, and Uncertainty
of the Laser Frequency................. 842
11.14.2 Basics
of Laser Frequency Stabilization .... 845
11.14.3 Examples
of Frequency-Stabilized Lasers...... 852
11.14.4 Measurement
of Optical Frequencies ................. 863
11.14.5 Conclusion and Outlook ............... 864
References .................................................. 864
12 Femtosecond Laser Pulses: Linear Properties, Manipulation,
Generation and Measurement
Matthias Wollenhaupt, Andreas Assion, Thomas Baumert.......................... 937
12.1 Linear Properties
of Ultrashort Light Pulses ...................... 938
12.1.1 Descriptive Introduction................ 938
12.1.2 Mathematical Description.............. 939
12.1.3 Changing the Temporal Shape
via the Frequency Domain............. 947
12.2 Generation of Femtosecond Laser Pulses
via Mode Locking.................................. 959
12.3 Measurement Techniques
for Femtosecond Laser Pulses ................ 962
12.3.1 Streak Camera.............................. 963
12.3.2 Intensity Autocorrelation
and Cross-Correlation ................... 963
12.3.3 Interferometric Autocorrelations .... 966
12.3.4 Time–Frequency Methods ............. 967
12.3.5 Spectral Interferometry ................. 976
References .................................................. 979
Part D Selected Applications and Special Fields
13 Optical and Spectroscopic Techniques
Wolfgang Demtroder, Sune Svanberg........................................................ 987
13.1 Stationary Methods............................... 987
13.1.1 Absorption and Emission
Spectroscopy, Laser-Induced
Fluorescence ............................... 998
13.1.2 Laser Spectroscopy
in Molecular Beams ...................... 999
13.1.3 Nonlinear Laser Spectroscopy......... 1003
13.1.4 Polarimetry and Ellipsometry......... 1009
13.1.5 Optical Pumping
and Double Resonance ................. 1011
13.2 Time-Resolved Methods ........................ 1012
13.2.1 Basic Principles ............................ 1012
13.2.2 Wavelength-Tunable Short Pulses .. 1013
13.2.3 Time-Resolved Spectroscopy.......... 1017
13.2.4 Coherent Time-Resolved
Spectroscopy ............................... 1022
13.2.5 Applications of Short Laser Pulses... 1026
13.3 LIDAR................................................... 1031
13.3.1 Introduction ................................ 1031
13.3.2 Instrumentation .......................... 1033
13.3.3 Atmospheric LIDAR Applications ..... 1035
13.3.4 LIDAR Monitoring
of Condensed Targets.................... 1039
13.3.5 Unconventional LIDAR Applications. 1046
13.3.6 Discussion and Outlook ................. 1047
References .................................................. 1048
14 Quantum Optics
Gerard Milburn ........................................................................................ 1053
14.1 Quantum Fields .................................... 1053
14.2 States of Light...................................... 1055
14.3 Measurement ....................................... 1058
14.3.1 Photon Counting .......................... 1059
14.3.2 Homo-/Heterodyne Detection ........ 1060
14.4 Dissipation and Noise ........................... 1061
14.4.1 Quantum Trajectories.................... 1063
14.4.2 Simulating Quantum Trajectories.... 1066
14.5 Ion Traps ............................................. 1066
14.6 Quantum Communication
and Computation ................................. 1070
14.6.1 Linear Optical Quantum Computing 1072
References .................................................. 1077
15 Nanooptics
Motoichi Ohtsu ........................................................................................ 1079
15.1 Basics .................................................. 1079
15.2 Nanophotonics Principles ...................... 1080
15.3 Nanophotonic Devices ........................... 1082
15.4 Nanophotonic Fabrications.................... 1085
15.4.1 Photochemical Vapor Deposition .... 1085
15.4.2 Photolithography ......................... 1086
15.4.3 Self-Organized Deposition
and Nanoimprinting..................... 1086
15.5 Extension to Related Science
and Technology.................................... 1088
15.6 Summary ............................................. 1088
References .................................................. 1089
16 Optics far Beyond the Diffraction Limit:
Stimulated Emission Depletion Microscopy
Stefan W. Hell.......................................................................................... 1091
16.1 Principles of STED Microscopy ......................................................... 1092
16.2 Nanoscale Imaging with STED......................................................... 1094
References .............................................................................................. 1097
17 Ultrafast THz Photonics and Applications
Daniel Grischkowsky ................................................................................ 1099
17.1 Guided-Wave THz Photonics .................. 1101
17.1.1 Subpicosecond Electrical Pulses...... 1101
17.1.2 Sample Fabrication....................... 1101
17.1.3 Generation and Measurement
of the Pulses ............................... 1102
17.1.4 Electrooptic Sampling of Pulses
on Transmission Lines................... 1103
17.1.5 THz Shockwave Generation
on Nonlinear Transmission Lines .... 1104
17.1.6 Transmission Line Theory .............. 1105
17.1.7 THz-TDS Characterization
of Transmission Lines.................... 1106
17.1.8 Guided-Wave THz-TDS
Characterization of Dielectrics ........ 1110
17.1.9 THz Waveguides ........................... 1110
17.2 Freely Propagating Wave THz Photonics .. 1116
17.2.1 An Optoelectronic THz Beam System 1116
17.2.2 Other THz Transmitters .................. 1122
17.2.3 Other THz Receivers ...................... 1132
17.2.4 THz-TDS with Freely Propagating
THz Pulses ................................... 1134
17.2.5 THz-TDS of Liquids ........................ 1143
17.2.6 cw THz Photomixing Spectroscopy .. 1145
References .................................................. 1145
18 X-Ray Optics
Christian G. Schroer, Bruno Lengeler ......................................................... 1153
18.1 Interaction of X-Rays
with Matter ......................................... 1154
18.2 X-Ray Optical Components..................... 1156
18.2.1 Refractive Optics .......................... 1156
18.2.2 Reflective Optics........................... 1158
18.2.3 Diffractive Optics .......................... 1159
References .................................................. 1162
19 Radiation and Optics in the Atmosphere
Ulrich Platt, Klaus Pfeilsticker, Michael Vollmer ......................................... 1165
19.1 Radiation Transport
in the Earth’s Atmosphere..................... 1166
19.1.1 Basic Quantities Related
to Radiation Transport ................. 1166
19.1.2 Absorption Processes ................... 1166
19.1.3 Rayleigh Scattering...................... 1166
19.1.4 Raman Scattering ........................ 1167
19.1.5 Mie Scattering............................. 1168
19.2 The Radiation Transport Equation .......... 1169
19.2.1 Sink Terms (Extinction)................. 1169
19.2.2 Source Terms
(Scattering and Thermal Emission). 1169
19.2.3 Simplification of the Radiation
Transport Equation...................... 1170
19.2.4 Light Attenuation
in the Atmosphere ...................... 1171
19.3 Aerosols and Clouds .............................. 1172
19.4 Radiation and Climate .......................... 1174
19.5 Applied Radiation Transport: Remote
Sensing of Atmospheric Properties ......... 1176
19.5.1 Trace Gases ................................ 1176
19.5.2 The Fundamentals of DOAS ........... 1176
19.5.3 Variations of DOAS ....................... 1178
19.5.4 Atmospheric Aerosols................... 1179
19.5.5 Determination of the Distribution
of Solar Photon Path Lengths........ 1181
19.6 Optical Phenomena in the Atmosphere... 1182
19.6.1 Characteristics
of Light Scattering by Molecules
and Particles .............................. 1182
19.6.2 Mirages...................................... 1185
19.6.3 Clear Sky:
Blue Color and Polarization .......... 1186
19.6.4 Rainbows ................................... 1187
19.6.5 Coronas, Iridescence and Glories ... 1189
19.6.6 Halos ......................................... 1191
19.6.7 The Color of the Sun and Sky ........ 1193
19.6.8 Clouds and Visibility .................... 1195
19.6.9 Miscellaneous ............................. 1196
References .................................................. 1197
Mirco Imlau, Martin Fally, Hans Coufal†, Geoffrey W. Burr,
Glenn T. Sincerbox ................................................................................... 1205
20.1 Introduction and History ....................... 1206
20.2 Principles of Holography ....................... 1207
20.2.1 Recording of Holograms
and Wavefront Reconstruction ...... 1207
20.2.2 Classification Scheme................... 1208
20.2.3 Recording Geometries.................. 1212
20.2.4 Holography Techniques................ 1214
20.2.5 Holographic Recording Materials ... 1215
20.3 Applications of Holography ................... 1217
20.3.1 Holographic Data Storage ............. 1217
20.3.2 Holography in Archaeology........... 1217
20.3.3 Holographic Interferometry .......... 1218
20.3.4 Holography in Medicine
and Biology ................................ 1219
20.3.5 Diffractive Optics with
Computer-Generated Holograms... 1220
20.3.6 Security Aspects of Holography...... 1220
20.3.7 Holographic Scattering
for Material Analysis .................... 1220
20.3.8 Atomic-Resolution Holography ..... 1221
20.3.9 Neutron Diffractive Optics............. 1222
20.4 Summary and Outlook........................... 1222
20.5 Optical Data Storage ............................. 1223
20.6 Approaches to Increased Areal Density.... 1225
20.6.1 Short-Wavelength Lasers ............. 1225
20.6.2 Increased Numerical Aperture ....... 1226
20.6.3 Magnetic Super-resolution ........... 1226
20.7 Volumetric Optical Recording ................. 1227
20.7.1 Volumetric Addressing Techniques. 1228
20.7.2 Addressing by Depth of Focus ....... 1228
20.7.3 Two-Photon Absorption
for Addressing of a Bit Cell ........... 1229
20.7.4 Interferometry ............................ 1229
20.7.5 Persistent Spectral Hole Burning
(PSHB)........................................ 1230
20.7.6 Holographic Storage .................... 1230
20.7.7 Holographic Multiplexing ............. 1232
20.7.8 Media ........................................ 1233
20.7.9 Write-Once Read-Many ............... 1233
20.7.10 Read–Write ................................ 1234
20.7.11 Nonvolatile Read–Write Storage.... 1234
20.7.12 Phase-Conjugate Read Out
for Read–Write Systems ............... 1235
20.7.13 Write-Once Systems
Using Spinning Disks ................... 1237
20.7.14 Content-Addressable Storage........ 1238
20.8 Conclusion ........................................... 1239
References .................................................. 1239
21 Laser Safety
Hans-Dieter Reidenbach .......................................................................... 1251
21.1 Historical Remarks ................................ 1252
21.2 Biological Interactions and Effects ......... 1253
21.2.1 Fundamental Interactions ............ 1253
21.2.2 Effects of Laser Radiation
on the Eye and Skin .................... 1257
21.3 Maximum Permissible Exposure ............. 1260
21.3.1 Threshold values and ED-50 ......... 1260
21.3.2 MPE Values for the Eye ................. 1261
21.3.3 MPEs given as Radiant Exposure
and Irradiance ............................ 1263
21.4 International Standards and Regulations1267
21.5 Laser Hazard Categories and Laser Classes1268
21.5.1 Accessible Emission Limits ............ 1268
21.5.2 Description of the Laser Classes ..... 1269
21.6 Protective Measures .............................. 1270
21.6.1 Technical and Engineering
Measures ................................... 1270
21.6.2 Administrative Measures .............. 1270
21.6.3 Personal Protective Equipment ..... 1272
21.6.4 Beyond Optical Hazards ............... 1272
21.6.5 Future Regulations ...................... 1273
21.7 Special Recommendations ..................... 1273
References .................................................. 1275
// @
Acknowledgements................................................................................... 1277
About the Authors..................................................................................... 1279
Subject Index............................................................................................. 1313