 <h4>HANDBOOK OF NANOTECHNOLOGY</h4>
 <h5>Bharat Bhushan (ed.)</h5>
 <h6>Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2004.</h6>
 <h4>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h4>
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Foreword by Neal Lane 6
Foreword by James R. Heath 8
Preface 10
Editors Vita 12
List of Authors 14
Contents 22
List of Tables  30
List of Abbreviations  34 
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1 Introduction to Nanotechnology 1
1.1 Background and Definition of Nanotechnology 1
1.2 Why Nano? 2
1.3 Lessons from Nature 2
1.4 Applications in Different Fields 3
1.5 Reliability Issues of MEMS/NEMS 4
1.6 Organization of the Handbook 5
References 5
Part A Nanostructures, Micro/Nanofabrication, and Micro/Nanodevices
2 Nanomaterials Synthesis and Applications: Molecule-Based Devices 9
2.1 Chemical Approaches to Nanostructured Materials 10
2.1.1 From Molecular Building Blocks to Nanostructures 10
2.1.2 Nanoscaled Biomolecules: Nucleic Acids and Proteins 10
2.1.3 Chemical Synthesis of Artificial Nanostructures 12
2.1.4 From Structural Control to Designed Properties and Functions 12
2.2 Molecular Switches and Logic Gates 14
2.2.1 From Macroscopic to Molecular Switches 15
2.2.2 Digital Processing and Molecular Logic Gates 15
2.2.3 Molecular AND, NOT, and OR Gates 16
2.2.4 Combinational Logic at the Molecular Level 17
2.2.5 Intermolecular Communication 18
2.3 Solid State Devices 22
2.3.1 From Functional Solutions to Electroactive and Photoactive Solids 22
2.3.2 Langmuir–Blodgett Films 23
2.3.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers 27
2.3.4 Nanogaps and Nanowires 31
2.4 Conclusions and Outlook 35
References 36
3 Introduction to Carbon Nanotubes 39
3.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes 40
3.1.1 Single-Wall Nanotubes 40
3.1.2 Multiwall Nanotubes 43
3.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes 45
3.2.1 Solid Carbon Source-Based Production Techniques for Carbon Nanotubes 45
3.2.2 Gaseous Carbon Source-Based Production Techniques for Carbon Nanotubes 52
3.2.3 Miscellaneous Techniques 57
3.2.4 Synthesis of Aligned Carbon Nanotubes 58
3.3 Growth Mechanisms of Carbon Nanotubes 59
3.3.1 Catalyst-Free Growth 59
3.3.2 Catalytically Activated Growth 60
3.4 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 63
3.4.1 Variability of Carbon Nanotube Properties 63
3.4.2 General Properties 63
3.4.3 SWNT Adsorption Properties 63
3.4.4 Transport Properties 65
3.4.5 Mechanical Properties 67
3.4.6 Reactivity 67
3.5 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nano-Objects 68
3.5.1 Hetero-Nanotubes 68
3.5.2 Hybrid Carbon Nanotubes 68
3.5.3 Functionalized Nanotubes 71
3.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 73
3.6.1 Current Applications 73
3.6.2 Expected Applications Related to Adsorption 76
References 86
4 Nanowires 99
4.1 Synthesis 100
4.1.1 Template-Assisted Synthesis 100
4.1.2 VLS Method for Nanowire Synthesis 105
4.1.3 Other Synthesis Methods 107
4.1.4 Hierarchical Arrangement and Superstructures of Nanowires 108
4.2 Characterization and Physical Properties of Nanowires 110
4.2.1 Structural Characterization 110
4.2.2 Transport Properties 115
4.2.3 Optical Properties 126
4.3 Applications 131
4.3.1 Electrical Applications 131
4.3.2 Thermoelectric Applications 133
4.3.3 Optical Applications 134
4.3.4 Chemical and Biochemical Sensing Devices 137
4.3.5 Magnetic Applications 137
4.4 Concluding Remarks 138
References 138
5 Introduction to Micro/Nanofabrication 147
5.1 Basic Microfabrication Techniques 148
5.1.1 Lithography 148
5.1.2 Thin Film Deposition and Doping 149
5.1.3 Etching and Substrate Removal 153
5.1.4 Substrate Bonding 157
5.2 MEMS Fabrication Techniques 159
5.2.1 Bulk Micromachining 159
5.2.2 Surface Micromachining 163
5.2.3 High-Aspect-Ratio Micromachining 166
5.3 Nanofabrication Techniques 170
5.3.1 E-Beam and Nano-Imprint Fabrication 171
5.3.2 Epitaxy and Strain Engineering 172
5.3.3 Scanned Probe Techniques 173
5.3.4 Self-Assembly and Template Manufacturing 176
References 180
6 Stamping Techniques for Micro and Nanofabrication: Methods and Applications 185
6.1 High Resolution Stamps 186
6.2 Microcontact Printing 187
6.3 Nanotransfer Printing 190
6.4 Applications 193
6.4.1 Unconventional Electronic Systems 193
6.4.2 Lasers and Waveguide Structures 198
6.5 Conclusions 200
References 200
7 Materials Aspects of Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical Systems 203
7.1 Silicon 203
7.1.1 Single Crystal Silicon 204
7.1.2 Polysilicon 205
7.1.3 Porous Silicon 208
7.1.4 Silicon Dioxide 208
7.1.5 Silicon Nitride 209
7.2 Germanium-Based Materials 210
7.2.1 Polycrystalline Ge 210
7.2.2 Polycrystalline SiGe 210
7.3 Metals 211
7.4 Harsh Environment Semiconductors 212
7.4.1 Silicon Carbide 212
7.4.2 Diamond 215
7.5 GaAs, InP, and Related III-V Materials 217
7.6 Ferroelectric Materials 218
7.7 Polymer Materials 219
7.7.1 Polyimide 219
7.7.2 SU-8 220
7.7.3 Parylene 220
7.8 Future Trends 220
References 221
8 MEMS/NEMS Devices and Applications 225
8.1 MEMS Devices and Applications 227
8.1.1 Pressure Sensor 227
8.1.2 Inertial Sensor 229
8.1.3 Optical MEMS 233
8.1.4 RF MEMS 239
8.2 NEMS Devices and Applications 246
8.3 Current Challenges and Future Trends 249
References 250
9 Microfluidics and Their Applications to Lab-on-a-Chip 253
9.1 Materials for Microfluidic Devices and Micro/Nano Fabrication Techniques 254
9.1.1 Silicon 254
9.1.2 Glass 254
9.1.3 Polymer 255
9.2 Active Microfluidic Devices 257
9.2.1 Microvalves 258
9.2.2 Micropumps 260
9.3 Smart Passive Microfluidic Devices 262
9.3.1 Passive Microvalves 262
9.3.2 Passive Micromixers 265
9.3.3 Passive Microdispensers 266
9.3.4 Microfluidic Multiplexer Integrated with Passive Microdispenser 267
9.3.5 Passive Micropumps 269
9.3.6 Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Passive Microfluidic Approach 269
9.4 Lab-on-a-Chip for Biochemical Analysis 270
9.4.1 Magnetic Micro/Nano Bead-Based Biochemical Detection System 270
9.4.2 Disposable Smart Lab-on-a-Chip for Blood Analysis 273
References 276
10 Therapeutic Nanodevices 279
10.1 Definitions and Scope of Discussion 280
10.1.1 Design Issues 281
10.1.2 Utility and Scope of Therapeutic Nanodevices 285
10.2 Synthetic Approaches: “top-down” versus “bottom-up” Approaches for Nanotherapeutic Device Components 285
10.2.1 Production of Nanoporous Membranes by Microfabrication Methods: A top-down Approach 285
10.2.2 Synthesis of Poly(amido) Amine (PAMAM) Dendrimers: A bottom-up Approach 286
10.2.3 The Limits of top-down and bottom-up Distinctions with Respect to Nanomaterials and Nanodevices 287
10.3 Technological and Biological Opportunities 288
10.3.1 Assembly Approaches 288
10.3.2 Targeting: Delimiting Nanotherapeutic Action
in Three-Dimensional Space 296
10.3.3 Triggering: Delimiting Nanotherapeutic Action in Space and Time 298
10.3.4 Sensing Modalities 302
10.3.5 Imaging Using Nanotherapeutic Contrast Agents 304
10.4 Applications for Nanotherapeutic Devices 307
10.4.1 Nanotherapeutic Devices in Oncology 307
10.4.2 Cardiovascular Applications of Nanotherapeutics 310
10.4.3 Nanotherapeutics and Specific Host Immune Responses 311
10.5 Concluding Remarks: Barriers to Practice and Prospects 315
10.5.1 Complexity in Biology 315
10.5.2 Dissemination of Biological Information 315
10.5.3 Cultural Differences Between Technologists and Biologists 316
References 317
Part B Scanning Probe Microscopy
11 Scanning Probe Microscopy – Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and Probes 325
11.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscope 327
11.1.1 Binnig et al.’s Design 327
11.1.2 Commercial STMs 328
11.1.3 STM Probe Construction 330
11.2 Atomic Force Microscope 331
11.2.1 Binnig et al.’s Design 333
11.2.2 Commercial AFM 333
11.2.3 AFM Probe Construction 338
11.2.4 Friction Measurement Methods 342
11.2.5 Normal Force and Friction Force Calibrations of Cantilever Beams 346
11.3 AFM Instrumentation and Analyses 347
11.3.1 The Mechanics of Cantilevers 347
11.3.2 Instrumentation and Analyses of Detection Systems for Cantilever Deflections 350
11.3.3 Combinations for 3-D-Force Measurements 358
11.3.4 Scanning and Control Systems 359
References 364
12 Probes in Scanning Microscopies 371
12.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 372
12.1.1 Principles of Operation 372
12.1.2 Standard Probe Tips 373
12.1.3 Probe Tip Performance 374
12.1.4 Oxide-Sharpened Tips 375
12.1.5 FIB tips 376
12.1.6 EBD tips 376
12.1.7 Carbon Nanotube Tips 376
12.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 382
12.2.1 Mechanically Cut STM Tips 382
12.2.2 Electrochemically Etched STM Tips 383
References 383
13 Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy and Its Related Topics 385
13.1 Principles of Noncontact Atomic Force Microscope (NC-AFM) 386
13.1.1 Imaging Signal in AFM 386
13.1.2 Experimental Measurement and Noise 387
13.1.3 Static AFM Operating Mode 387
13.1.4 Dynamic AFM Operating Mode 388
13.1.5 The Four Additional Challenges Faced by AFM 388
13.1.6 Frequency-Modulation AFM (FM-AFM) 389
13.1.7 Relation Between Frequency Shift and Forces 390
13.1.8 Noise in Frequency-Modulation AFM – Generic Calculation 391
13.1.9 Conclusion 391
13.2 Applications to Semiconductors 391
13.2.1 Si(111)7?7 Surface 392
13.2.2 Si(100)2?1 and Si(100)2?1:H Monohydride Surfaces 393
13.2.3 Metal-Deposited Si Surface 395
13.3 Applications to Insulators 397
13.3.1 Alkali Halides, Fluorides, and Metal Oxides 397
13.3.2 Atomically Resolved Imaging of a NiO(001) Surface 402
13.3.3 Atomically Resolved Imaging Using Noncoated and Fe-Coated Si Tips 402
13.4 Applications to Molecules 404
13.4.1 Why Molecules and What Molecules? 404
13.4.2 Mechanism of Molecular Imaging 404
13.4.3 Perspectives 407
References 407
14 Low Temperature Scanning Probe Microscopy 413
14.1 Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures 414
14.1.1 Drift 414
14.1.2 Noise 415
14.1.3 Stability 415
14.1.4 Piezo Relaxation and Hysteresis 415
14.2 Instrumentation 415
14.2.1 A Simple Design for a Variable Temperature STM 416
14.2.2 A Low Temperature SFM Based on a Bath Cryostat 417
14.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy 419
14.3.1 Atomic Manipulation 419
14.3.2 Imaging Atomic Motion 420
14.3.3 Detecting Light from Single Atoms and Molecules 421
14.3.4 High Resolution Spectroscopy 422
14.3.5 Imaging Electronic Wave Functions 427
14.3.6 Imaging Spin Polarization: Nanomagnetism 431
14.4 Scanning Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy 433
14.4.1 Atomic-Scale Imaging 434
14.4.2 Force Spectroscopy 436
14.4.3 Electrostatic Force Microscopy 438
14.4.4 Magnetic Force Microscopy 439
References 442
15 Dynamic Force Microscopy 449
15.1 Motivation: Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond 450
15.2 Harmonic Oscillator: A Model System for Dynamic AFM 454
15.3 Dynamic AFM Operational Modes 455
15.3.1 Amplitude-Modulation/ Tapping-Mode AFMs 456
15.3.2 Self-Excitation Modes 461
15.4 Q-Control 464
15.5 Dissipation Processes Measured with Dynamic AFM 468
15.6 Conclusion 471
References 471
16 Molecular Recognition Force Microscopy 475
16.1 Ligand Tip Chemistry 476
16.2 Fixation of Receptors to Probe Surfaces 478
16.3 Single-Molecule Recognition Force Detection 479
16.4 Principles of Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy 482
16.5 Recognition Force Spectroscopy: From Isolated Molecules to Biological Membranes 484
16.5.1 Forces, Energies, and Kinetic Rates 484
16.5.2 Complex Bonds and Energy Landscapes 486
16.5.3 Live Cells and Membranes 489
16.6 Recognition Imaging 489
16.7 Concluding Remarks 491
References 492
Part C Nanotribology and Nanomechanics
17 Micro/Nanotribology and Materials Characterization Studies Using Scanning Probe Microscopy 497
17.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 499
17.1.1 Surface Roughness and Friction Force Measurements 500
17.1.2 Adhesion Measurements 502
17.1.3 Scratching, Wear and Fabrication/Machining 503
17.1.4 Surface Potential Measurements 503
17.1.5 In Situ Characterization of Local Deformation Studies 504
17.1.6 Nanoindentation Measurements 504
17.1.7 Localized Surface Elasticity and Viscoelasticity Mapping 505
17.1.8 Boundary Lubrication Measurements 507
17.2 Friction and Adhesion 507
17.2.1 Atomic-Scale Friction 507
17.2.2 Microscale Friction 507
17.2.3 Directionality Effect on Microfriction 511
17.2.4 Velocity Dependence on Microfriction 513
17.2.5 Effect of Tip Radii and Humidity on Adhesion and Friction 515
17.2.6 Scale Dependence on Friction 518
17.3 Scratching, Wear, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining 518
17.3.1 Nanoscale Wear 518
17.3.2 Microscale Scratching 519
17.3.3 Microscale Wear 520
17.3.4 In Situ Characterization of Local Deformation 524
17.3.5 Nanofabrication/Nanomachining 526
17.4 Indentation 526
17.4.1 Picoindentation 526
17.4.2 Nanoscale Indentation 527
17.4.3 Localized Surface Elasticity and Viscoelasticity Mapping 528
17.5 Boundary Lubrication 530
17.5.1 Perfluoropolyether Lubricants 530
17.5.2 Self-Assembled Monolayers 536
17.5.3 Liquid Film Thickness Measurements 537
17.6 Closure 538
References 539
18 Surface Forces and Nanorheology of Molecularly Thin Films 543
18.1 Introduction: Types of Surface Forces 544
18.2 Methods Used to Study Surface Forces 546
18.2.1 Force Laws 546
18.2.2 Adhesion Forces 547
18.2.3 The SFA and AFM 547
18.2.4 Some Other Force-Measuring Techniques 549
18.3 Normal Forces Between Dry (Unlubricated) Surfaces 550
18.3.1 Van der Waals Forces in Vacuum and Inert Vapors 550
18.3.2 Charge Exchange Interactions 552
18.3.3 Sintering and Cold Welding 553
18.4 Normal Forces Between Surfaces in Liquids 554
18.4.1 Van der Waals Forces in Liquids 554
18.4.2 Electrostatic and Ion Correlation Forces 554
18.4.3 Solvation and Structural Forces 557
18.4.4 Hydration and Hydrophobic Forces 559
18.4.5 Polymer-Mediated Forces 561
18.4.6 Thermal Fluctuation Forces 563
18.5 Adhesion and Capillary Forces 564
18.5.1 Capillary Forces 564
18.5.2 Adhesion Mechanics 566
18.5.3 Effects of Surface Structure, Roughness,and Lattice Mismatch 566
18.5.4 Nonequilibrium and Rate-Dependent Interactions:Adhesion Hysteresis 567
18.6 Introduction: Different Modes of Friction and the Limits of Continuum Models 569
18.7 Relationship Between Adhesion and Friction Between Dry (Unlubricated and Solid Boundary Lubricated) Surfaces 571
18.7.1 Amontons’ Law and Deviations from It Due to Adhesion:
The Cobblestone Model 571
18.7.2 Adhesion Force and Load Contribution to Interfacial Friction 572
18.7.3 Examples of Experimentally Observed Friction of Dry Surfaces 576
18.7.4 Transition from Interfacial to Normal Friction with Wear 579
18.8 Liquid Lubricated Surfaces 580
18.8.1 Viscous Forces and Friction of Thick Films: Continuum Regime 580
18.8.2 Friction of Intermediate Thickness Films 582
18.8.3 Boundary Lubrication of Molecularly Thin Films: Nanorheology 584
18.9 Role of Molecular Shape and Surface Structure in Friction 591
References 594
19 Scanning Probe Studies of Nanoscale Adhesion Between Solids in the Presence of Liquids and Monolayer Films 605
19.1 The Importance of Adhesion at the Nanoscale 605
19.2 Techniques for Measuring Adhesion 606
19.3 Calibration of Forces, Displacements, and Tips 610
19.3.1 Force Calibration 610
19.3.2 Probe Tip Characterization 611
19.3.3 Displacement Calibration 612
19.4 The Effect of Liquid Capillaries on Adhesion 612
19.4.1 Theoretical Background 612
19.4.2 Experimental and Theoretical Studies of Capillary Formation with Scanning Probes 614
19.4.3 Future Directions 618
19.5 Self-Assembled Monolayers 618
19.5.1 Adhesion at SAM Interfaces 618
19.5.2 Chemical Force Microscopy: General Methodology 619
19.5.3 Adhesion at SAM-Modified Surfaces in Liquids 620
19.5.4 Impact of Intra- and Inter-Chain Interactions on Adhesion 621
19.5.5 Adhesion at the Single-Bond Level 622
19.5.6 Future Directions 623
19.6 Concluding Remarks 624
References 624
20 Friction and Wear on the Atomic Scale 631
20.1 Friction Force Microscopy in Ultra-High Vacuum 632
20.1.1 Friction Force Microscopy 632
20.1.2 Force Calibration 632
20.1.3 The Ultra-high Vacuum Environment 635
20.1.4 A Typical Microscope in UHV 635
20.2 The Tomlinson Model 636
20.2.1 One-dimensional Tomlinson Model 636
20.2.2 Two-dimensional Tomlinson Model 637
20.2.3 Friction Between Atomically Flat Surfaces 637
20.3 Friction Experiments on Atomic Scale 638
20.3.1 Anisotropy of Friction 642
20.4 Thermal Effects on Atomic Friction 642
20.4.1 The Tomlinson Model at Finite Temperature 642
20.4.2 Velocity Dependence of Friction 644
20.4.3 Temperature Dependence of Friction 645
20.5 Geometry Effects in Nanocontacts 646
20.5.1 Continuum Mechanics of Single Asperities 646
20.5.2 Load Dependence of Friction 647
20.5.3 Estimation of the Contact Area 647
20.6 Wear on the Atomic Scale 649
20.6.1 Abrasive Wear on the Atomic Scale 649
20.6.2 Wear Contribution to Friction 650
20.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Atomic Friction and Wear 651
20.7.1 Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Friction Processes 651
20.7.2 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Abrasive Wear 652
20.8 Energy Dissipation in Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy 654
20.9 Conclusion 656
References 657
21 Nanoscale Mechanical Properties – Measuring Techniques and Applications 661
21.1 Local Mechanical Spectroscopy by Contact AFM 662
21.1.1 The Variable-Temperature SLAM (T-SLAM) 663
21.1.2 Example One: Local Mechanical Spectroscopy of Polymers 664
21.1.3 Example Two: Local Mechanical Spectroscopy of NiTi 665
21.2 Static Methods – Mesoscopic Samples 667
21.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes – Introduction to Basic Morphologies and Production Methods 667
21.2.2 Measurements of the Mechanical Properties
of Carbon Nanotubes by SPM 668
21.2.3 Microtubules and Their Elastic Properties 673
21.3 Scanning Nanoindentation: An Application to Bone Tissue 674
21.3.1 Scanning Nanoindentation 674
21.3.2 Application of Scanning Nanoindentation 674
21.3.3 Example: Study of Mechanical Properties of Bone Lamellae Using SN 675
21.3.4 Conclusion 681
21.4 Conclusions and Perspectives 682
References 682
22 Nanomechanical Properties of Solid Surfaces and Thin Films 687
22.1 Instrumentation 688
22.1.1 AFM and Scanning Probe Microscopy 688
22.1.2 Nanoindentation 689
22.1.3 Adaptations of Nanoindentation 690
22.1.4 Complimentary Techniques 691
22.1.5 Bulge Tests 691
22.1.6 Acoustic Methods 692
22.1.7 Imaging Methods 693
22.2 Data Analysis 694
22.2.1 Elastic Contacts 694
22.2.2 Indentation of Ideal Plastic Materials 694
22.2.3 Adhesive Contacts 695
22.2.4 Indenter Geometry 696
22.2.5 Analyzing Load/Displacement Curves 696
22.2.6 Modifications to the Analysis 699
22.2.7 Alternative Methods of Analysis 700
22.2.8 Measuring Contact Stiffness 701
22.2.9 Measuring Viscoelasticity 702
22.3 Modes of Deformation 702
22.3.1 Defect Nucleation 702
22.3.2 Variations with Depth 704
22.3.3 Anisotropic Materials 704
22.3.4 Fracture and Delamination 704
22.3.5 Phase Transformations 705
22.4 Thin Films and Multilayers 707
22.4.1 Thin Films 707
22.4.2 Multilayers 709
22.5 Developing Areas 711
References 712
23 Atomistic Computer Simulations of Nanotribology 717
23.1 Molecular Dynamics 718
23.1.1 Model Potentials 719
23.1.2 Maintaining Constant Temperature 720
23.1.3 Imposing Load and Shear 721
23.1.4 The Time-Scale and Length-Scale Gaps 721
23.1.5 A Summary of Possible Traps 722
23.2 Friction Mechanisms at the Atomic Scale 723
23.2.1 Geometric Interlocking 723
23.2.2 Elastic Instabilities 724
23.2.3 Role of Dimensionality and Disorder 727
23.2.4 Elastic Instabilities vs. Wear in Atomistic Models 727
23.2.5 Hydrodynamic Lubrication and Its Confinement-Induced Breakdown 729
23.2.6 Submonolayer Films 731
23.3 Stick-Slip Dynamics 732
23.4 Conclusions 734
References 735
24 Mechanics of Biological Nanotechnology 739
24.1 Science at the Biology–Nanotechnology Interface 740
24.1.1 Biological Nanotechnology 740
24.1.2 Self-Assembly as Biological Nanotechnology 740
24.1.3 Molecular Motors as Biological Nanotechnology 740
24.1.4 Molecular Channels and Pumps as Biological Nanotechnology 741
24.1.5 Biologically Inspired Nanotechnology 742
24.1.6 Nanotechnology and Single Molecule Assays in Biology 743
24.1.7 The Challenge of Modeling the Bio-Nano Interface 744
24.2 Scales at the Bio-Nano Interface 746
24.2.1 Spatial Scales and Structures 747
24.2.2 Temporal Scales and Processes 749
24.2.3 Force and Energy Scales: The Interplay of Deterministic and Thermal Forces 750
24.3 Modeling at the Nano-Bio Interface 752
24.3.1 Tension Between Universality and Specificity 752
24.3.2 Atomic-Level Analysis of Biological Systems 753
24.3.3 Continuum Analysis of Biological Systems 753
24.4 Nature’s Nanotechnology Revealed: Viruses as a Case Study 755
24.5 Concluding Remarks 760
References 761
25 Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures 763
25.1 Experimental Techniques for Measurement of Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures 765
25.1.1 Indentation and Scratch Tests Using Micro/Nanoindenters 765
25.1.2 Bending Tests of Nanostructures Using an AFM 765
25.1.3 Bending Tests Using a Nanoindenter 769
25.2 Experimental Results and Discussion 770
25.2.1 Indentation and Scratch Tests of Various Materials Using Micro/Nanoindenters 770
25.2.2 Bending Tests of Nanobeams Using an AFM 773
25.2.3 Bending Tests of Microbeams Using a Nanoindenter 777
25.3 Finite Element Analysis of Nanostructures with Roughness and Scratches 778
25.3.1 Stress Distribution in a Smooth Nanobeam 779
25.3.2 Effect of Roughness in the Longitudinal Direction 781
25.3.3 Effect of Roughness in the Transverse Direction and Scratches 781
25.3.4 Effect on Stresses and Displacements for Materials That Are Elastic, Elastic-Plastic, or Elastic-Perfectly Plastic 784
25.4 Closure 785
References 786
Part D Molecularly Thick Films for Lubrication
26 Nanotribology of Ultrathin and Hard Amorphous Carbon Films 791
26.1 Description of Commonly Used Deposition Techniques 795
26.1.1 Filtered Cathodic Arc Deposition Technique 798
26.1.2 Ion Beam Deposition Technique 798
26.1.3 Electron Cyclotron Resonance Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique 799
26.1.4 Sputtering Deposition Technique 799
26.1.5 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique 799
26.2 Chemical Characterization and Effect of Deposition Conditions on Chemical Characteristics and Physical Properties 800
26.2.1 EELS and Raman Spectroscopy 800
26.2.2 Hydrogen Concentrations 804
26.2.3 Physical Properties 804
26.2.4 Summary 805
26.3 Micromechanical and Tribological Characterizations of Coatings Deposited by Various Techniques 805
26.3.1 Micromechanical Characterization 805
26.3.2 Microscratch and Microwear Studies 813
26.3.3 Macroscale Tribological Characterization 822
26.3.4 Coating Continuity Analysis 826
References 827
27 Self-Assembled Monolayers for Controlling Adhesion, Friction and Wear 831
27.1 A Primer to Organic Chemistry 834
27.1.1 Electronegativity/Polarity 834
27.1.2 Classification and Structure of Organic Compounds 835
27.1.3 Polar and Nonpolar Groups 838
27.2 Self-Assembled Monolayers: Substrates, Head Groups, Spacer Chains, and End Groups 839
27.3 Tribological Properties of SAMs 841
27.3.1 Surface Roughness and Friction Images of SAMs Films 844
27.3.2 Adhesion, Friction, and Work of Adhesion 844
27.3.3 Stiffness, Molecular Spring Model, and Micropatterned SAMs 848
27.3.4 Influence of Humidity, Temperature, and Velocity on Adhesion and Friction 850
27.3.5 Wear and Scratch Resistance of SAMs 853
27.4 Closure 856
References 857
28 Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication Studies 861
28.1 Lubricants Details 862
28.2 Nanodeformation, Molecular Conformation, and Lubricant Spreading 864
28.3 Boundary Lubrication Studies 866
28.3.1 Friction and Adhesion 866
28.3.2 Rest Time Effect 869
28.3.3 Velocity Effect 871
28.3.4 Relative Humidity and Temperature Effect 873
28.3.5 Tip Radius Effect 876
28.3.6 Wear Study 879
28.4 Closure 880
References 881
29 Kinetics and Energetics in Nanolubrication 883
29.1 Background: From Bulk to Molecular Lubrication 885
29.1.1 Hydrodynamic Lubrication and Relaxation 885
29.1.2 Boundary Lubrication 885
29.1.3 Stick Slip and Collective Phenomena 885
29.2 Thermal Activation Model of Lubricated Friction 887
29.3 Functional Behavior of Lubricated Friction 888
29.4 Thermodynamical Models Based on Small and Nonconforming Contacts 890
29.5 Limitation of the Gaussian Statistics – The Fractal Space 891
29.6 Fractal Mobility in Reactive Lubrication 892
29.7 Metastable Lubricant Systems in Large Conforming Contacts 894
29.8 Conclusion 895
References 895
Part E Industrial Applications and Microdevice Reliability
30 Nanotechnology for Data Storage Applications 899
30.1 Current Status of Commercial Data Storage Devices 901
30.1.1 Non-Volatile Random Access Memory 904
30.2 Opportunities Offered by Nanotechnology for Data Storage 907
30.2.1 Motors 907
30.2.2 Sensors 909
30.2.3 Media and Experimental Results 913
30.3 Conclusion 918
References 919
31 The “Millipede” – A Nanotechnology-Based AFM Data-Storage System 921
31.1 The Millipede Concept 923
31.2 Thermomechanical AFM Data Storage 924
31.3 Array Design, Technology, and Fabrication 926
31.4 Array Characterization 927
31.5 x/y/z Medium Microscanner 929
31.6 First Write/Read Results with the 32?32 Array Chip 931
31.7 Polymer Medium 932
31.7.1 Writing Mechanism 932
31.7.2 Erasing Mechanism 935
31.7.3 Overwriting Mechanism 937
31.8 Read Channel Model 939
31.9 System Aspects 943
31.9.1 [peserror]PES Generation for the Servo Loop 943
31.9.2 Timing Recovery 945
31.9.3 Considerations on Capacity and Data Rate 946
31.10 Conclusions 948
References 948
32 Microactuators for Dual-Stage Servo Systems in Magnetic Disk Files 951
32.1 Design of the Electrostatic Microactuator 952
32.1.1 Disk Drive Structural Requirements 952
32.1.2 Dual-Stage Servo Configurations 953
32.1.3 Electrostatic Microactuators: Comb-Drives vs. Parallel-Plates 954
32.1.4 Position Sensing 956
32.1.5 Electrostatic Microactuator Designs for Disk Drives 958
32.2 Fabrication 962
32.2.1 Basic Requirements 962
32.2.2 Electrostatic Microactuator Fabrication Example 962
32.2.3 Electrostatic Microactuator Example Two 963
32.2.4 Other Fabrication Processes 966
32.2.5 Suspension-Level Fabrication Processes 967
32.2.6 Actuated Head Fabrication 968
32.3 Servo Control Design of MEMS Microactuator Dual-Stage Servo Systems 968
32.3.1 Introduction to Disk Drive Servo Control 969
32.3.2 Overview of Dual-Stage Servo Control Design Methodologies 969
32.3.3 Track-Following Controller Design for a MEMS Microactuator Dual-Stage Servo System 971
32.3.4 Dual-Stage Seek Control Design 976
32.4 Conclusions and Outlook 978
References 979
33 Micro/Nanotribology of MEMS/NEMS Materials and Devices 983
33.1 Introduction to MEMS 985
33.2 Introduction to NEMS 988
33.3 Tribological Issues in MEMS/NEMS 989
33.3.1 MEMS 989
33.3.2 NEMS 994
33.3.3 Tribological Needs 995
33.4 Tribological Studies of Silicon and Related Materials 995
33.4.1 Tribological Properties of Silicon and the Effect of Ion Implantation 996
33.4.2 Effect of Oxide Films on Tribological Properties of Silicon 998
33.4.3 Tribological Properties of Polysilicon Films and SiC Film 1000
33.5 Lubrication Studies for MEMS/NEMS 1003
33.5.1 Perfluoropolyether Lubricants 1003
33.5.2 Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs) 1004
33.5.3 Hard Diamond-like Carbon (DLC) Coatings 1008
33.6 Component-Level Studies 1009
33.6.1 Surface Roughness Studies of Micromotor Components 1009
33.6.2 Adhesion Measurements 1011
33.6.3 Static Friction Force (Stiction) Measurements in MEMS 1014
33.6.4 Mechanisms Associated with Observed Stiction Phenomena
in Micromotors 1016
References 1017
34 Mechanical Properties of Micromachined Structures 1023
34.1 Measuring Mechanical Properties of Films on Substrates 1023
34.1.1 Residual Stress Measurements 1023
34.1.2 Mechanical Measurements Using Nanoindentation 1024
34.2 Micromachined Structures for Measuring Mechanical Properties 1024
34.2.1 Passive Structures 1025
34.2.2 Active Structures 1028
34.3 Measurements of Mechanical Properties 1034
34.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Polysilicon 1034
34.3.2 Mechanical Properties of Other Materials 1036
References 1037
35 Thermo- and Electromechanics of Thin-Film Microstructures 1039
35.1 Thermomechanics of Multilayer Thin-Film Microstructures 1041
35.1.1 Basic Phenomena 1041
35.1.2 A General Framework for the Thermomechanics of Multilayer Films 1046
35.1.3 Nonlinear Geometry 1054
35.1.4 Nonlinear Material Behavior 1058
35.1.5 Other Issues 1061
35.2 Electromechanics of Thin-Film Microstructures 1061
35.2.1 Applications of Electromechanics 1061
35.2.2 Electromechanics Analysis 1063
35.2.3 Electromechanics – Parallel-Plate Capacitor 1064
35.2.4 Electromechanics of Beams and Plates 1066
35.2.5 Electromechanics of Torsional Plates 1068
35.2.6 Leveraged Bending 1069
35.2.7 Electromechanics of Zipper Actuators 1070
35.2.8 Electromechanics for Test Structures 1072
35.2.9 Electromechanical Dynamics: Switching Time 1073
35.2.10 Electromechanics Issues: Dielectric Charging 1074
35.2.11 Electromechanics Issues: Gas Discharge 1075
35.3 Summary and Mention of Topics not Covered 1078
References 1078
36 High Volume Manufacturing and Field Stability
of MEMS Products 1083
36.1 Manufacturing Strategy 1086
36.1.1 Volume 1086
36.1.2 Standardization 1086
36.1.3 Production Facilities 1086
36.1.4 Quality 1087
36.1.5 Environmental Shield 1087
36.2 Robust Manufacturing 1087
36.2.1 Design for Manufacturability 1087
36.2.2 Process Flow and Its Interaction with Product Architecture 1088
36.2.3 Microstructure Release 1095
36.2.4 Wafer Bonding 1095
36.2.5 Wafer Singulation 1097
36.2.6 Particles 1098
36.2.7 Electrostatic Discharge and Static Charges 1098
36.2.8 Package and Test 1099
36.2.9 Quality Systems 1101
36.3 Stable Field Performance 1102
36.3.1 Surface Passivation 1102
36.3.2 System Interface 1105
References 1106
37 MEMS Packaging and Thermal Issues in Reliability 1111
37.1 MEMS Packaging 1111
37.1.1 MEMS Packaging Fundamentals 1112
37.1.2 Contemporary MEMS Packaging Approaches 1113
37.2 Hermetic and Vacuum Packaging and Applications 1116
37.2.1 Integrated Micromachining Processes 1117
37.2.2 Post-Packaging Processes 1118
37.2.3 Localized Heating and Bonding 1119
37.3 Thermal Issues and Packaging Reliability 1122
37.3.1 Thermal Issues in Packaging 1122
37.3.2 Packaging Reliability 1124
37.3.3 Long-Term and Accelerated MEMS Packaging Tests 1125
37.4 Future Trends and Summary 1128
References 1129
Part F Social and Ethical Implication
38 Social and Ethical Implications of Nanotechnology 1135
38.1 Applications and Societal Impacts 1136
38.2 Technological Convergence 1139
38.3 Major Socio-technical Trends 1141
38.4 Sources of Ethical Behavior 1143
38.5 Public Opinion 1145
38.6 A Research Agenda 1148
// @
References 1149
Acknowledgements 1153
About the Authors 1155
Detailed Contents 1171
Subject Index 1189