// ***
 <h4>ELASTIC LIDAR
Theory, Practice, and Analysis Methods</h4>
 <h5>Vladimir A. Kovalev, William E. Eichinger
</h5>
 // displacement=80
<h6>John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2004</h6>
// displacement=0
 <h4>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h4>
 // absolute_page_number=1
Preface xi 11
Definitions xv 14
 // absolute_page_number=0
1 Atmospheric Properties 1
1.1. Atmospheric Structure, 1
1.1.1. Atmospheric Layers, 1
1.1.2. Convective and Stable Boundary Layers, 7
1.1.3. Boundary Layer Theory, 11
1.2. Atmospheric Properties, 17
1.2.1. Vertical Profiles of Temperature, Pressure and Number Density, 17
1.2.2. Tropospheric and Stratospheric Aerosols, 18
1.2.3. Particulate Sizes and Distributions, 20
1.2.4. Atmospheric Data Sets, 23
2 Light Propagation in the Atmosphere 25
2.1. Light Extinction and Transmittance, 25
2.2. Total and Directional Elastic Scattering of the Light Beam, 30
2.3. Light Scattering by Molecules and Particulates: Inelastic Scattering, 32
2.3.1. Index of Refraction, 33
2.3.2. Light Scattering by Molecules (Rayleigh Scattering), 33
2.3.3. Light Scattering by Particulates (Mie Scattering), 36
2.3.4. Monodisperse Scattering Approximation, 37
2.3.5. Polydisperse Scattering Systems, 40
2.3.6. Inelastic Scattering, 43
2.4. Light Absorption by Molecules and Particulates, 45
3 Fundamentals of the Lidar Technique 53
3.1. Introduction to the Lidar Technique, 53
3.2. Lidar Equation and Its Constituents, 56
3.2.1. The Single-Scattering Lidar Equation, 56
3.2.2. The Multiple-Scattering Lidar Equation, 65
3.3. Elastic Lidar Hardware, 74
3.3.1 Typical Lidar Hardware, 74
3.4. Practical Lidar Issues, 81
3.4.1. Determination of the Overlap Function, 81
3.4.2. Optical Filtering, 87
3.4.3. Optical Alignment and Scanning, 88
3.4.4. The Range Resolution of a Lidar, 93
3.5. Eye Safety Issues and Hardware, 95
3.5.1. Lidar-Radar Combination, 97
3.5.2. Micropulse Lidar, 98
3.5.3. Lidars Using Eye-Safe Laser Wavelengths, 101
4 Detectors, Digitizers, Electronics 105
4.1. Detectors, 105
4.1.1. General Types of Detectors, 106
4.1.2. Specific Detector Devices, 109
4.1.3. Detector Performance, 116
4.1.4. Noise, 118
4.1.5. Time Response, 122
4.2. Electric Circuits for Optical Detectors, 125
4.3. A-D Converters/Digitizers, 130
4.3.1. Digitizing the Detector Signal, 130
4.3.2. Digitizer Errors, 132
4.3.3. Digitizer Use, 133
4.4. General, 135
4.4.1. Impedance Matching, 135
4.4.2. Energy Monitoring Hardware, 135
4.4.3. Photon Counting, 136
4.4.4. Variable Amplification, 140
5 Analytical Solutions of the Lidar Equation 143
5.1. Simple Lidar-Equation Solution for a Homogeneous Atmosphere: Slope Method, 144
5.2. Basic Transformation of the Elastic Lidar Equation, 153
5.3. Lidar Equation Solution for a Single-Component Heterogeneous Atmosphere, 160
5.3.1. Boundary Point Solution, 163
5.3.2. Optical Depth Solution, 166
5.3.3. Solution Based on a Power-Law Relationship Between Backscatter and Extinction, 171
5.4. Lidar Equation Solution for a Two-Component Atmosphere, 173
5.5. Which Solution is Best?, 181
6 Uncertainty Estimation for Lidar Measurements 185
6.1. Uncertainty for the Slope Method, 187
6.2. Lidar Measurement Uncertainty in a Two-Component Atmosphere, 198
6.2.1. General Formula, 198
6.2.2. Boundary Point Solution: Influence of Uncertainty and Location of the Specified Boundary Value on the Uncertainty dkW(r), 201
6.2.3. Boundary-Point Solution: Influence of the Particulate Backscatter-to-Extinction Ratio and the Ratio Between kp(r) and km(r) on Measurement Accuracy, 207
6.3. Background Constituent in the Original Lidar Signal and Lidar Signal Averaging, 215
7 Backscatter-to-Extinction Ratio 223
7.1. Exploration of the Backscatter-to-Extinction Ratios: Brief Review, 223
7.2. Influence of Uncertainty in the Backscatter-to-Extinction Ratio on the Inversion Result, 230
7.3. Problem of a Range-Dependent Backscatter-to-Extinction Ratio, 240
7.3.1. Application of the Power-Law Relationship Between Backscattering and Total Scattering in Real Atmospheres: Overview, 243
7.3.2. Application of a Range-Dependent Backscatter-to-Extinction Ratio in Two-Layer Atmospheres, 247
7.3.3. Lidar Signal Inversion with an Iterative Procedure, 250
8 Lidar Examination of Clear and Moderately Turbid Atmospheres 257
8.1. One-Directional Lidar Measurements: Methods and Problems, 257
8.1.1. Application of a Particulate-Free Zone Approach, 258
8.1.2. Iterative Method to Determine the Location of Clear Zones, 266
8.1.3. Two-Boundary-Point and Optical Depth Solutions, 269
8.1.4. Combination of the Boundary Point and Optical Depth Solutions, 275
8.2. Inversion Techniques for a “Spotted” Atmosphere, 282
8.2.1. General Principles of Localization of Atmospheric “Spots”, 283
8.2.2. Lidar-Inversion Techniques for Monitoring and Mapping Particulate Plumes and Thin Clouds, 286
9 Multiangle Methods for Extinction Coefficient Determination 295
9.1. Angle-Dependent Lidar Equation and Its Basic Solution, 295
9.2. Solution for the Layer-Integrated Form of the Angle-Dependent Lidar Equation, 304
9.3. Solution for the Two-Angle Layer-Integrated Form of the Lidar Equation, 309
9.4. Two-Angle Solution for the Angle-Independent Lidar Equation, 313
9.5. High-Altitude Tropospheric Measurements with Lidar, 320
9.6. Which Method Is the Best?, 325
10 Differential Absorption Lidar Technique (DIAL) 331
10.1. DIAL Processing Technique: Fundamentals, 332
10.1.1. General Theory, 332
10.1.2. Uncertainty of the Backscatter Corrections in Atmospheres with Large Gradients of Aerosol Backscattering, 340
10.1.3. Dependence of the DIAL Equation Correction Terms on the Spectral Range Interval Between the On and Off Wavelengths, 346
10.2. DIAL Processing Technique: Problems, 352
10.2.1. Uncertainty of the DIAL Solution for Column Content of the Ozone Concentration, 352
10.2.2. Transition from Integrated to Range-Resolved Ozone Concentration: Problems of Numerical Differentiation and Data Smoothing, 357
10.3. Other Techniques for DIAL Data Processing, 365
10.3.1. DIAL Nonlinear Approximation Technique for Determining Ozone Concentration Profiles, 365
10.3.2. Compensational Three-Wavelength DIAL Technique, 376
11 Hardware Solutions to the Inversion Problem 387
11.1. Use of N2 Raman Scattering for Extinction Measurement, 388
11.1.1. Method, 388
11.1.2. Limitations of the Method, 397
11.1.3. Uncertainty, 399
11.1.4. Alternate Methods, 401
11.1.5. Determination of Water Content in Clouds, 405
11.2. Resolution of Particulate and Molecular Scattering by Filtration, 407
11.2.1. Background, 407
11.2.2. Method, 408
11.2.3. Hardware, 411
11.2.4. Atomic Absorption Filters, 413
11.2.5. Sources of Uncertainty, 417
11.3. Multiple-Wavelength Lidars, 418
11.3.1. Application of Multiple-Wavelength Lidars for the Extraction of Particulate Optical Parameters, 420
11.3.2. Investigation of Particulate Microphysical Parameters with Multiple-Wavelength Lidars, 426
11.3.3. Limitations of the Method, 429
12 Atmospheric Parameters from Elastic Lidar Data 431
12.1. Visual Range in Horizontal Directions, 431
12.1.1. Definition of Terms, 431
12.1.2. Standard Instrumentation and Measurement Uncertainties, 435
12.1.3. Methods of the Horizontal Visibility Measurement with Lidar, 441
12.2. Visual Range in Slant Directions, 451
12.2.1. Definition of Terms and the Concept of the Measurement, 451
12.2.2. Asymptotic Method in Slant Visibility Measurement, 461
12.3. Temperature Measurements, 466
12.3.1. Rayleigh Scattering Temperature Technique, 467
12.3.2. Metal Ion Differential Absorption, 470
12.3.3. Differential Absorption Methods, 479
12.3.4. Doppler Broadening of the Rayleigh Spectrum, 482
12.3.5. Rotational Raman Scattering, 483
12.4. Boundary Layer Height Determination, 489
12.4.1. Profile Methods, 493
12.4.2. Multidimensional Methods, 497
12.5. Cloud Boundary Determination, 501
13 Wind Measurement Methods from Elastic Lidar Data 507
13.1. Correlation Methods to Determine Wind Speed and Direction, 508
13.1.1. Point Correlation Methods, 509
13.1.2. Two-Dimensional Correlation Method, 513
13.1.3. Fourier Correlation Analysis, 518
13.1.4. Three-Dimensional Correlation Method, 519
13.1.5. Multiple-Beam Technique, 522
13.1.6. Uncertainty in Correlation Methods, 529
13.2. Edge Technique, 531
13.3. Fringe Imaging Technique, 540
13.4. Kinetic Energy, Dissipation Rate, and Divergence, 544
Bibliography 547
// @
Index 595
